Naseljavanje Amerika

Naseljavanje Amerika počelo je kad su lovci-sakupljači gornjeg paleolitika dospjeli u Sjevernu Ameriku iz sjevernoazijske Mamutske stepe preko Beringije koja se formirala između sjeveroistočnog Sibira i zapadne Aljaske zbog snižavanja razine mora tijekom posljednjeg glacijalnog maksimuma.^[1] Ove populacije proširile su se južno od Laurentide ledene ploče i brzo se raširile na područje Sjeverne i Južne Amerike, prije oko 14.000 godina.^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5] Najranije populacije u Americi, prije otprilike 10.000 godina, poznate su kao Paleoindijanci.

Naseljavanje Amerika dugogodišnje je otvoreno pitanje, i dok napredak u arheologiji, pleistocenskoj geologiji, fizičkoj antropologiji i DNA analizi postupno bacaju sve više svijetla na ovu temu, bitna pitanja i dalje su neriješena.^[6] Iako postoji opća suglasnost oko toga da su Amerike prvo naseljene iz Azije, ne postoji suglasnost oko puta i vremena migracija, niti o mjestu/mjestima podrijetla ljudi koji su migrirali iz Euroazije u Amerike.^[3]

Prevladavajući modeli migracija ocrtavaju različite vremenske okvire za azijsku migraciju od Beringovog prolaza i daljnje širenje osnivačke populacije širom kontinenta.^[7] Domorodački narodi Amerika povezani su sa sibirskim populacijama preko lingvističkih faktora, raspodjelom krvnih grupa i genetskom kompozicijom, kao što je prikazano molekularnim podatcima, poput DNA.^[8]^[9]

„Kloviška prva teorija” odnosi se na hipotezu iz 1950-ih kojom kloviška kultura predstavlja najranije ljudsko prisustvo u Amerikama, počevši od prije oko 13.000 godina; dokazi o postojanju kultura prije kloviške kulture prikupljeni su od 2000. godine, gurnuvši nazad moguće vrijeme prvog dolaska ljudi u Amerike na prije 33.000 godina.^[10]^[11]^[12]

Izvori

↑ Pringle, Heather (8. ožujka 2017.). "What Happens When an Archaeologist Challenges Mainstream Scientific Thinking?". Smithsonian. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/jacques-cinq-mars-bluefish-caves-scientific-progress-180962410 Pristupljeno 13. listopada 2019.
↑ Fagan, Brian M. & Durrani, Nadia (2016). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction. Routledge. str. 124. ISBN 978-1-317-34244-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=fMneCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124
↑ ^3,0 ^3,1 Goebel, Ted; Waters, Michael R.; O'Rourke, Dennis H. (2008). "The Late Pleistocene dispersal of modern humans in the Americas". Science 319 (5869): 1497–1502. doi:10.1126/science.1153569. PMID 18339930. Inačica izvorne stranice arhivirana 2. siječnja 2014.. http://www.centerfirstamericans.com/cfsa-publications/Science2008.pdf Pristupljeno 5. veljače 2010.
↑ Zimmer, Carl (3. siječnja 2018.). "In the Bones of a Buried Child, Signs of a Massive Human Migration to the Americas". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/03/science/native-americans-beringia-siberia.html Pristupljeno 3. siječnja 2018.
↑ Moreno-Mayer, J. Victor (2018). "Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans". Nature 553 (7687): 203–07 , Bibcode: 2018Natur.553..203M. doi:10.1038/nature25173. PMID 29323294. S2CID 4454580.
↑ Waguespack, Nicole (2012). "Early Paleoindians, from Colonization to Folsom". Unutar Timothy R. Pauketat. The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology. Oxford University Press. str. 86–95. ISBN 978-0-19-538011-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=yf8j0b7gLvUC&pg=PA86
↑ Kornfeld, Marcel & Politis, Gustavo G. (2014). "Into the Americas: The Earliest Hunter-Gatherers in an Empty Continent". In Vicki Cummings; Peter Jordan & Marek Zvelebil (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Oxford University Press. p. 406. ISBN 978-0-19-102526-6.
↑ Ash, Patricia J. & Robinson, David J. (2011). The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline. John Wiley & Sons. str. 289. ISBN 978-1-119-96424-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=JUlSYsyC-NQC&pg=PT289
↑ Roberts, Alice (2010). The Incredible Human Journey. A&C Black. str. 101–03. ISBN 978-1-4088-1091-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=ng8ai3xkZRUC&pg=PT101
↑ Ardelean, Ciprian F.; Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Pedersen, Mikkel Winther; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Oviatt, Charles G.; Macías-Quintero, Juan I.; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin; Sikora, Martin; Ocampo-Díaz, Yam Zul E.; Rubio-Cisneros, Igor I.; Watling, Jennifer G.; De Medeiros, Vanda B.; De Oliveira, Paulo E.; Barba-Pingarón, Luis; Ortiz-Butrón, Agustín; Blancas-Vázquez, Jorge; Rivera-González, Irán; Solís-Rosales, Corina; Rodríguez-Ceja, María; Gandy, Devlin A.; Navarro-Gutierrez, Zamara; de la Rosa-Díaz, Jesús J.; Huerta-Arellano, Vladimir; Marroquín-Fernández, Marco B.; Martínez-Riojas, L. Martin; López-Jiménez, Alejandro; Higham, Thomas; Willerslev, Eske (2020). "Evidence of human occupation in Mexico around the Last Glacial Maximum". Nature 584 (7819): 87–92. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2509-0 , doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2509-0. PMID 32699412. S2CID 220697089.
↑ Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Higham, Thomas (2020). "The timing and effect of the earliest human arrivals in North America". Nature 584 (7819): 93–97. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2491-6 , doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2491-6. PMID 32699413. S2CID 220715918.
↑ Gruhn, Ruth (22. srpnja 2020.). "Evidence grows that peopling of the Americas began more than 20,000 years ago". Nature 584 (7819): 47–48. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02137-3 , doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02137-3. PMID 32699366. S2CID 220717778.

Vanjske poveznice

The Paleoindian Database – The University of Tennessee, Department of Anthropology.
"The first Americans: How and when were the Americas populated?", Earth, January 2016
"When Did Humans Come to the Americas?" – Smithsonian Magazine February 2013
The Paleoindian Period – United States Department of the Interior, National Park Service
Shepard Krech III, Paleoindians and the Great Pleistocene Die-Off – American Academy of Arts and Sciences, National Humanities Center, 2008.
Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (movie) na YouTube-u – by Spencer Wells – PBS and National Geographic Channel, 2003 – 120 Minutes, UPC/EAN: 841887001267

[Smithsonian-1] Pringle, Heather (8. ožujka 2017.). "What Happens When an Archaeologist Challenges Mainstream Scientific Thinking?". Smithsonian. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/jacques-cinq-mars-bluefish-caves-scientific-progress-180962410 Pristupljeno 13. listopada 2019.

[FaganDurrani2016-2] Fagan, Brian M. & Durrani, Nadia (2016). World Prehistory: A Brief Introduction. Routledge. str. 124. ISBN 978-1-317-34244-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=fMneCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124

[Goebel-3] 3,0 ^3,1 Goebel, Ted; Waters, Michael R.; O'Rourke, Dennis H. (2008). "The Late Pleistocene dispersal of modern humans in the Americas". Science 319 (5869): 1497–1502. doi:10.1126/science.1153569. PMID 18339930. Inačica izvorne stranice arhivirana 2. siječnja 2014.. http://www.centerfirstamericans.com/cfsa-publications/Science2008.pdf Pristupljeno 5. veljače 2010.

[NYT-20180103-4] Zimmer, Carl (3. siječnja 2018.). "In the Bones of a Buried Child, Signs of a Massive Human Migration to the Americas". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/03/science/native-americans-beringia-siberia.html Pristupljeno 3. siječnja 2018.

[NAT-20180103-5] Moreno-Mayer, J. Victor (2018). "Terminal Pleistocene Alaskan genome reveals first founding population of Native Americans". Nature 553 (7687): 203–07 , Bibcode: 2018Natur.553..203M. doi:10.1038/nature25173. PMID 29323294. S2CID 4454580.

[Pauketat2012-6] Waguespack, Nicole (2012). "Early Paleoindians, from Colonization to Folsom". Unutar Timothy R. Pauketat. The Oxford Handbook of North American Archaeology. Oxford University Press. str. 86–95. ISBN 978-0-19-538011-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=yf8j0b7gLvUC&pg=PA86

[CummingsJordan2014-7] Kornfeld, Marcel & Politis, Gustavo G. (2014). "Into the Americas: The Earliest Hunter-Gatherers in an Empty Continent". In Vicki Cummings; Peter Jordan & Marek Zvelebil (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology and Anthropology of Hunter-Gatherers. Oxford University Press. p. 406. ISBN 978-0-19-102526-6.

[AshRobinson2011-8] Ash, Patricia J. & Robinson, David J. (2011). The Emergence of Humans: An Exploration of the Evolutionary Timeline. John Wiley & Sons. str. 289. ISBN 978-1-119-96424-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=JUlSYsyC-NQC&pg=PT289

[Roberts2010-9] Roberts, Alice (2010). The Incredible Human Journey. A&C Black. str. 101–03. ISBN 978-1-4088-1091-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=ng8ai3xkZRUC&pg=PT101

[10] Ardelean, Ciprian F.; Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Pedersen, Mikkel Winther; Schwenninger, Jean-Luc; Oviatt, Charles G.; Macías-Quintero, Juan I.; Arroyo-Cabrales, Joaquin; Sikora, Martin; Ocampo-Díaz, Yam Zul E.; Rubio-Cisneros, Igor I.; Watling, Jennifer G.; De Medeiros, Vanda B.; De Oliveira, Paulo E.; Barba-Pingarón, Luis; Ortiz-Butrón, Agustín; Blancas-Vázquez, Jorge; Rivera-González, Irán; Solís-Rosales, Corina; Rodríguez-Ceja, María; Gandy, Devlin A.; Navarro-Gutierrez, Zamara; de la Rosa-Díaz, Jesús J.; Huerta-Arellano, Vladimir; Marroquín-Fernández, Marco B.; Martínez-Riojas, L. Martin; López-Jiménez, Alejandro; Higham, Thomas; Willerslev, Eske (2020). "Evidence of human occupation in Mexico around the Last Glacial Maximum". Nature 584 (7819): 87–92. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2509-0 , doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2509-0. PMID 32699412. S2CID 220697089.

[11] Becerra-Valdivia, Lorena; Higham, Thomas (2020). "The timing and effect of the earliest human arrivals in North America". Nature 584 (7819): 93–97. doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2491-6 , doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2491-6. PMID 32699413. S2CID 220715918.

[12] Gruhn, Ruth (22. srpnja 2020.). "Evidence grows that peopling of the Americas began more than 20,000 years ago". Nature 584 (7819): 47–48. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02137-3 , doi:10.1038/d41586-020-02137-3. PMID 32699366. S2CID 220717778.

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